“Back to China”: the Reverse Brain Drain in China

â€Å"Back to China†: the Reverse Brain Drain in China Every autumn, American students are busy with applying for undergraduate or graduate schools, so are an increasing number of Chinese students. Chinese get to realize the significance of being transnational. â€Å"Transnational† means involving in many countries. Now, human capital, especially those who have international experience, is significant to the development of a country in the internationalized world. However, plenty of overseas students from developing country tend to stay abroad for a better future, which is a great loss of developing countries.But, recently, more and more Chinese students go back to China after they complete their study, which is a good news to China. Looking through this new trend, there are three main factors that may drive overseas scholars to come back to China: the growth of economy in China, the support from the government to overseas scholars, and the bond between overseas scholar s and home land. Reverse brain drain is a term of migration. The definition of this term is the phenomenon that talented people who once studied or worked in developed country go to a less developed country which is developing in high pace.Recently, this has been common in developing countries, such as India, Brazil, and China (Llana, Ford, Marquand, Pflanz, & Ibukun, 2012). Conversely, in the past, People’s Republic of China (PRC) was not as open as it is now. PRC even ceased the communication in education with other countries once because of the Chinese Culture Revolution which lasted from 1966 to 1976 (Liu, & Li, 2010). Not until 1978 when China renewed the policy of international academic communication did China send students to go abroad (Yao, 2004).As China’s policy became looser, â€Å"outgoing tide† and â€Å"incoming tide† appeared (Zhang, 1997). â€Å"Outgoing tide† is a description of the phenomenon that plenty of students go abroad and the â€Å"incoming tide† means those students go back. Since 1978, according to China statistical yearbook 2011, more than 632,000 Chinese, or 33 percent of those who studied abroad, have returned home and both the rate of increase of overseas Chinese students and the rate of increase of returning Chinese scholars have grown sharply in recent years. For instance, in 1989, 3,329 went abroad to study.In 1990, the number of students who went abroad even decreased to 2,950 , only 1,593 scholars went back to China. In contrast, the total of students who studied abroad in 2010 increased to 284,700. In the same year, 134,800 students return after their study in foreign country, up 24. 7 percent from 2009 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011, 20-10). Statistics show that the reverse brain drain to China has already begun. In the past, the reason why the majority of overseas scholars chose staying abroad instead of returning was that they found there were obstacles blocking t heir way back to China.Those scholars were concerned about the factors linked with money, especially the living condition and career. Compared with working in China, it would be easier for scholars to have convenient places to live and earn relatively high salary when working abroad (Li, 1998). As for career, in China, when some young scholars applied for research funds, they were not able to get funded, which means they could only be assisted by institutions and companies abroad or study further overseas. Ruizhang Guan is one of the scholars who went abroad because of lack of fund.He did not have a Ph. D. at that time. He said, â€Å"It was difficult to get any funds without a Ph. D. , and without funding it was very hard to produce any results† (Yan, 1998, p. 59). Furthermore, Zweig, the chair professor of Social Science of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology who is known for his research on Chinese politics and political economy, pointed out in his paper â⠂¬Å"Competing for talent† (2006) that the economy of China was in poor condition, most of the institutes and research centers did not have enough money to update the facilities.Then scholars believed that they could not develop further in their fields with the deficient equipment in Chinese institutes. To have promising future, these scholars were willing to develop their careers in developed countries. It is undoubtedly true that there were many factors motivating the migration of scholar in that period. However, two decades have passed, and the living and working environment in China has changed dramatically, owing to the development in economy. The growing economy has given China opportunities to improve Chinese people’s living condition.And now when scholars consider the question whether to stay abroad or to go back to homeland, better living condition there can make life abroad less attractive. To illustrate the changes in living condition, Engel's coefficient is o ne of the index numbers. Engel's coefficient means the proportion of spending on food in total spending. A decreasing Engel's coefficient shows the average income has increased and life is getting better for a population. According to China statistical yearbook 2011 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011), Engel's coefficient there dropped from 54. in urban areas and 58. 8 in rural areas to 35. 7 and 41. 1 relatively (10-1). Also, the housing condition has been improved, for the rates of population with access to tap water and gas have increased to nearly 100% respectively and the per capita living space has been enlarged (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011, 10-1). Although the living condition in China is still not comparable to that in developed countries, it is much better than what it was 20 years ago, and this is acceptable to returnees.When compared with the rapid growth of China’s economy, the financial crisis in other parts of the world has disappoint ed overseas students recently, in terms of employment and advancement opportunities. In developed countries, scholars’ work and life seemed the same as before, and hardly can the pattern of life and work be changed. Whereas, China usually presented a better appearance to overseas scholars every time they came back to China (Liu & Li, 2010). Usually, opportunities appear in changes. Therefore, scholars believe there are better and more opportunities in their career in China.For example, in the report on October 21st, 2012, Sophie Tao, an ex-fund manager in New York who went back to China to promote her career further, states, â€Å"China is one of the few bright spots in the world economy† (Ford, 2012). In China, many academic fields have not been explored enough yet, and some are even virgin lands. For this reason, those returnees, equipped with the experience and knowledge gained from abroad, can lay foundations in their own field in China. The possibility of success attracts scholar to do research in China (Engardio, & Engardio, 2009).In fact, the 2008-2009 financial crisis tested the economic stability worldwide and the harm caused by the global economic crisis still affects the economics of the rich nations (Llana et al. , 2012). Moreover, it increased the unemployment rate of immigrants in developed countries and it became difficult for overseas students to find a job there. According to Stephen Castle, a Research Chair at the Department of Sociology and Social Policy at the University of Sydney, the unemployment rate for immigrants increased by 3. 4% in the European Union in 2008. And that rate in the USA has increased by 4. % (2012, p1847). Chinese students found out that it was difficult for them to find a suitable job overseas. Then, they started to think about whether the developed countries were their only choice of destination, or whether their homeland would be a feasible choice. And China did not disappoint them. China entered World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. And in 2002-2009 international companies have invested 683. 5 billion in China (Wang, 2012). The main method of their investment is to start their branch offices in China. Furthermore, China had to compete with other countries in the world.As a consequence, the â€Å"golden time† for overseas students to go back to China began (Ye, 2000, p. 20). Returnees believe that they can have their own contribution to the development of China. Ma Jianghe, who gained his doctorate of Law in the United States, chose to develop his career in China after the agreement on China’s accession to WTO was signed. He believed: â€Å"After China joins the WTO, I will have a big advantage in China’s law service market. My good understanding of Chinese and American laws will convince businessmen from both countries to trust me. † ( Ye, 2000, p. 1) As Ma said, the abilities that returnees possess are what a country or a company needs to succeed i n international competition. Their multi-cultural background, their communication skills and their ability of adaptation in their own field make them outstanding among employees. Besides the economic factors, in the past, another reason that would stop overseas scholars from returning was the strict control of scholars made by the government. Because of the control, the most violent issue happened in 4 June 1989. Students died, for their political status went against the government.Scholars were afraid of being deprived of freedom, both physically and politically (Zweig, 2006). They thought once they went back to China, they could never go abroad again and hardly could they communicate with international scholars. Considering of the life in future, many scholars refused to return home. Indeed, policies at that time were not open enough. Chinese government noticed that China was confronted with a serious problem that plenty of overseas talents chose to stay abroad. Only 20% of Chines e overseas scholars thought they might go back home according to Zweig’s survey which was done in 1993 (Zweig, 2006).Facing this obstacle, the authorities decided to support overseas scholars to come back to home and began to create friendly environment to welcome scholars. To encourage returning, the government has provides financial support to scholars through plenty of programs in recent 20 years. To illustrate how those programs work, the â€Å"thousand talents program† that was launched in 2008 is an appropriate example. The aim of this plan is to lure overseas scholars to go back to China and help their homeland to â€Å"raise its global competitiveness† and become â€Å"an innovative society† (Ford, 2012, para. 0). The Chinese government launched it to bring top scientists and high-tech entrepreneurs back home in the next five to 10 years. In this plan, the government is going to grant 1 million Yuan (about $146,000) per person as salary and resear ch fund. Then the government offers them insurance, housing and pensions, too. Thanks to this plan, over 2000 experts in varied field have gone back to China to start a new career during the last three years(Zhang, 2012,para. 1).The financial supports make the returnees’ road back to China easier. Not only the central government but also the local government attempts to attract overseas scholars. â€Å"Enterprise incubators† have been set up to offer opportunity to returnees to start their own business since 1994 (Zweig, 2006, & Liu, & Li, 2010). An â€Å"Enterprise incubator† is a special zone that provides preferential policies and service for overseas entrepreneurs, which makes it an appropriate zone for overseas scholars to begin from.According to the statistics cited in â€Å"Zhongguo liu xue tong shi† (The history of Chinese student studying abroad, Liu, & Li, 2010), in 2003, there were over 110 such zones in China, more than 6000 companies were fou nded in those zones, and over 15,000 overseas entrepreneurs were attracted to those zones. The annual output value of 2003 was 32. 7 billion Yuan (about $5. 24 billion). The success in these enterprise incubators may lure more overseas scholars to go home. Cultural binding with homeland also lures overseas scholars to go back to China.In a foreign country, it is probable for someone to suffer from nostalgia, discrimination, and other problems. And they would miss home and return to their familiar culture to avoid those problems. Family is an essential part of one’s cultural background. As a consequence, it acts as a firm bond between overseas scholars and their homeland. First, Kellogg, a researcher working on international migration at UCLA, did a survey on the future plans of Chinese students in America in 2012. According to the survey, the top one reason why they want to return home is family (Kellogg, 2012).It is suffering to stay far away from relatives and friends for a long period of time. Furthermore, because of one-child policy, the only child is what parents can rely on except for the welfare and pension when parents get old. In Chinese traditional convention, children should take care of the elder family members (Smith, 1973). So parents and children would like to live together, at least live nearby each other (Settles, Sheng, Zang, & Zhao, 2008). This will lead to an increasing number of overseas students to come back to China.Moreover, China, a familiar environment, may comfort these scholars and give them confidence in their career, which is an attraction to scholars who stays abroad. Integration into the local society is a troublesome problem to Chinese students. In a survey done by a website named deyi which is a popular website among Chinese students in Germany (2007) about the students’ situation in the local society, only seven percent of students assert that they have no problem to join the main stream. Others encountered prob lems more or less (as cited in Liu & Li, 2010, p. 88-491) To evade this, some of them tend to limit their social contact to a small group of Chinese people and confine their career to lab when they graduate, which lead to the result that they have less communication with the main stream and it becomes more troublesome for them to integrate into the society (Miller, 1992 & Liu & Li, 2010). On the other hand, their situation in China is different from that abroad. An overseas scholar has both a native knowledge of his or her homeland and the ability to use Chinese fluently.That is the basis of overseas scholars’ confidence. When they strike root in their homeland, they gain confidence. Chaoyang Zhang, the CEO of sohu (Sohu is one of the most successful Internet companies in China. )and a returnee, shares his experience: â€Å" When I was an official at MIT, I met Zhangliang Chen (He is a famous experts of tropical botany in China and he studied in Washington University in St. Louis. ) once. From his expression and the look in his eyes, I could see the authority and firmness that he gained during the years when he was in China.His confidence and pride are what overseas students and successful overseas scholars do not have. That is result of striking root in homeland. The difference is so enormous to make me shocked, which strengthen my determination to go back to China. † ( Liu & Li, 2010, p. 587) The confidence based on living in homeland cannot usually be gained elsewhere. On the other hand, the cultural binding with homeland may be a disadvantage of Chinese scholars when they live abroad. Chinese scholars and those who have already mmigrated to foreign country may experience discrimination from others. The glass ceiling exists, which according to Joseph Tsien, a American neuroscientist from China, is â€Å"an unspoken truth† (Mervis, 2005, p. 607). A glass ceiling means that a certain barrier blocks the advancement to a relatively high pos ition faced by minority in a society. Because of culture gap and language barrier, most of the scholars from China find they can not totally understand the foreign culture (Liu, & Li, 2010).As a result, many of them can have fame and achievement in their own field as scientists but only a few of them can get a job of senior management in their field (Mervis, 2005). Alice Huang, a successful virologist who came from mainland China to America when she was 10 years old, encountered the barrier in her application to a high- level job in New York University in 1991. During her interview, she found out that what the committee was searching for is a WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant) candidate and the committee set barriers to make Huang give up that position. In the end, she lost that position (Miller, 1992).Since evaluation, which may be subjective, is a key step in process of promotion, one, not belonging to the main stream, may be afraid of the unequal judgment done by the evaluating committee which consists of the majority. Scholars want to prove their value and be accepted by the society. But the existed barriers prevent scholars from getting higher positions and realize their plans. Under this condition, scholars would believe that they will be minority and nearly impossible to be integrated to mainstream, which may hurt scholars and drive them to go home (Liu, & Li, 2010).However, the racial discrimination to those overseas scholars will be eliminated in their homeland. They will be honored in China. Experiences of studying and working abroad are called â€Å"paint a little gold† (du jin) in Chinese (Zweig, Chen, & Rosen, 2004, p. 736), which means returnees are regarded precious in China. To conclude, the three keys to Chinese reverse brain drain are dramatic growth in the economics, proper policies that encourage overseas scholars to return and a cultural environment that can give returnees a sense of belonging.Through the success of China’s alluring scholars back, power plays a significant role. To encourage more overseas scholars to go back, the authorities should concentrate on developing the economy to gain more hard power. Moreover, an open political environment is necessary, for overseas scholars have experienced freedom in political status. Furthermore, for moving the trend of returning further, the government should not only concentrate on the quantity of the returnees but also the quality of the returnees. Reference: Alsop, R. (2007). TRACK: More Chinese Graduates Return Home.The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://online. wsj. com/article/SB11737448221373 4773. html Castles, S. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and freedom? Lessons of the global economic crisis. Ethnic & Racial Studies, 35(11), 1843-1852. doi:10. 1080/01419870. 2012. 715662 Confucius, C. (2006). â€Å"Lun yu† ming yan =: Aphorisms From LUNYU. Di 1 ban. Jinan: Qi lu shu she. Engardio, P. ,& Engardio, P. (2009). China's Rev erse Brain Drain. BloomberBusinessweek. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/ 09_48/b4157058821350. tm Ford, P. (2012). Reverse brain drain: China engineers incentives for â€Å"brain gain†. Christian Science Monitor, Retrieved from http://www. csmonitor. com/World/Global-Issues /2012/1021/Reverse-brain-drain-China-engineers-incentives-for-brain-gain International Rankings and Chinese Higher Education Reform. (2006). World Education News and Reviews. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www. wes. org/ ewenr/06oct/ practical. htm. Jianshu, Z. (2000). Students Returned from Abroad in the 1990s. Chinese Education & Society, 33(5), 8. Kellogg, R. (2012).China's Brain Gain? : Attitudes and Future Plans of Overseas Chinese Students in the US. Journal Of Chinese Overseas, 8(1), 83-104. doi:10. 1163/179325412X634319 Liu, J. , & Li, X. (2010). Zhongguo liu xue tong shi: Zhongguo liuxue tongshi. Di 1 ban. Guangzhou: Guangdong jiao yu chu ba n she Llana, S. , Ford, P. , Marquand, R. , Pflanz, M. , & Ibukun, Y. (2012). Reverse brain drain: Economic shifts lure migrants home. Christian Science Monitor, N. PAG. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2011). China statistical yearbook 2011. Beijing: China Statistics Press.Settles, B. , Sheng, X. , Zang, Y. & Zhao, J. (2008). The one child policy and its impacts on Chinese families. Research Committee on Family, 12-13. Smith, D. (1973). Confucius. London: Temple Smith. Wang, Z. (2012). Ten years of international companies since China entered WTO. International Financing. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www. zcom. com/ article/51886/ Yan, J. (1998). My heart turns toward the homeland. Chinese Education & Society,31(2), 57. Ye, L. (2000). Overseas students coming back at a golden time. Beijing Review, 43(6/7), 20. Zhang, Y. (2012).Thousand Talent Program brings more pros. China Daily, Retrieved from http://www. chinadaily. com. cn/bizchina/2012-04/28/content_15168335. htm. Zweig, D. , Changgui, C. , & Rosen, S. (2004). Globalization and transnational human capital: Overseas and returnee scholars to china. The China Quarterly, 735-757. Zweig, D. (2006). Competing for talent: China's strategies to reverse the brain drain. International Labour Review,145(1), 65-0_6. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com. ezproxy. library. wisc. edu/docview/224008850? accountid=465 ———————– 1 â€Å"Back to China†: the Reverse Brain Drain in China â€Å"Back to China†: the Reverse Brain Drain in China Every autumn, American students are busy with applying for undergraduate or graduate schools, so are an increasing number of Chinese students. Chinese get to realize the significance of being transnational. â€Å"Transnational† means involving in many countries. Now, human capital, especially those who have international experience, is significant to the development of a country in the internationalized world. However, plenty of overseas students from developing country tend to stay abroad for a better future, which is a great loss of developing countries.But, recently, more and more Chinese students go back to China after they complete their study, which is a good news to China. Looking through this new trend, there are three main factors that may drive overseas scholars to come back to China: the growth of economy in China, the support from the government to overseas scholars, and the bond between overseas scholar s and home land. Reverse brain drain is a term of migration. The definition of this term is the phenomenon that talented people who once studied or worked in developed country go to a less developed country which is developing in high pace.Recently, this has been common in developing countries, such as India, Brazil, and China (Llana, Ford, Marquand, Pflanz, & Ibukun, 2012). Conversely, in the past, People’s Republic of China (PRC) was not as open as it is now. PRC even ceased the communication in education with other countries once because of the Chinese Culture Revolution which lasted from 1966 to 1976 (Liu, & Li, 2010). Not until 1978 when China renewed the policy of international academic communication did China send students to go abroad (Yao, 2004).As China’s policy became looser, â€Å"outgoing tide† and â€Å"incoming tide† appeared (Zhang, 1997). â€Å"Outgoing tide† is a description of the phenomenon that plenty of students go abroad and the â€Å"incoming tide† means those students go back. Since 1978, according to China statistical yearbook 2011, more than 632,000 Chinese, or 33 percent of those who studied abroad, have returned home and both the rate of increase of overseas Chinese students and the rate of increase of returning Chinese scholars have grown sharply in recent years. For instance, in 1989, 3,329 went abroad to study.In 1990, the number of students who went abroad even decreased to 2,950 , only 1,593 scholars went back to China. In contrast, the total of students who studied abroad in 2010 increased to 284,700. In the same year, 134,800 students return after their study in foreign country, up 24. 7 percent from 2009 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011, 20-10). Statistics show that the reverse brain drain to China has already begun. In the past, the reason why the majority of overseas scholars chose staying abroad instead of returning was that they found there were obstacles blocking t heir way back to China.Those scholars were concerned about the factors linked with money, especially the living condition and career. Compared with working in China, it would be easier for scholars to have convenient places to live and earn relatively high salary when working abroad (Li, 1998). As for career, in China, when some young scholars applied for research funds, they were not able to get funded, which means they could only be assisted by institutions and companies abroad or study further overseas. Ruizhang Guan is one of the scholars who went abroad because of lack of fund.He did not have a Ph. D. at that time. He said, â€Å"It was difficult to get any funds without a Ph. D. , and without funding it was very hard to produce any results† (Yan, 1998, p. 59). Furthermore, Zweig, the chair professor of Social Science of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology who is known for his research on Chinese politics and political economy, pointed out in his paper â⠂¬Å"Competing for talent† (2006) that the economy of China was in poor condition, most of the institutes and research centers did not have enough money to update the facilities.Then scholars believed that they could not develop further in their fields with the deficient equipment in Chinese institutes. To have promising future, these scholars were willing to develop their careers in developed countries. It is undoubtedly true that there were many factors motivating the migration of scholar in that period. However, two decades have passed, and the living and working environment in China has changed dramatically, owing to the development in economy. The growing economy has given China opportunities to improve Chinese people’s living condition.And now when scholars consider the question whether to stay abroad or to go back to homeland, better living condition there can make life abroad less attractive. To illustrate the changes in living condition, Engel's coefficient is o ne of the index numbers. Engel's coefficient means the proportion of spending on food in total spending. A decreasing Engel's coefficient shows the average income has increased and life is getting better for a population. According to China statistical yearbook 2011 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011), Engel's coefficient there dropped from 54. in urban areas and 58. 8 in rural areas to 35. 7 and 41. 1 relatively (10-1). Also, the housing condition has been improved, for the rates of population with access to tap water and gas have increased to nearly 100% respectively and the per capita living space has been enlarged (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011, 10-1). Although the living condition in China is still not comparable to that in developed countries, it is much better than what it was 20 years ago, and this is acceptable to returnees.When compared with the rapid growth of China’s economy, the financial crisis in other parts of the world has disappoint ed overseas students recently, in terms of employment and advancement opportunities. In developed countries, scholars’ work and life seemed the same as before, and hardly can the pattern of life and work be changed. Whereas, China usually presented a better appearance to overseas scholars every time they came back to China (Liu & Li, 2010). Usually, opportunities appear in changes. Therefore, scholars believe there are better and more opportunities in their career in China.For example, in the report on October 21st, 2012, Sophie Tao, an ex-fund manager in New York who went back to China to promote her career further, states, â€Å"China is one of the few bright spots in the world economy† (Ford, 2012). In China, many academic fields have not been explored enough yet, and some are even virgin lands. For this reason, those returnees, equipped with the experience and knowledge gained from abroad, can lay foundations in their own field in China. The possibility of success attracts scholar to do research in China (Engardio, & Engardio, 2009).In fact, the 2008-2009 financial crisis tested the economic stability worldwide and the harm caused by the global economic crisis still affects the economics of the rich nations (Llana et al. , 2012). Moreover, it increased the unemployment rate of immigrants in developed countries and it became difficult for overseas students to find a job there. According to Stephen Castle, a Research Chair at the Department of Sociology and Social Policy at the University of Sydney, the unemployment rate for immigrants increased by 3. 4% in the European Union in 2008. And that rate in the USA has increased by 4. % (2012, p1847). Chinese students found out that it was difficult for them to find a suitable job overseas. Then, they started to think about whether the developed countries were their only choice of destination, or whether their homeland would be a feasible choice. And China did not disappoint them. China entered World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. And in 2002-2009 international companies have invested 683. 5 billion in China (Wang, 2012). The main method of their investment is to start their branch offices in China. Furthermore, China had to compete with other countries in the world.As a consequence, the â€Å"golden time† for overseas students to go back to China began (Ye, 2000, p. 20). Returnees believe that they can have their own contribution to the development of China. Ma Jianghe, who gained his doctorate of Law in the United States, chose to develop his career in China after the agreement on China’s accession to WTO was signed. He believed: â€Å"After China joins the WTO, I will have a big advantage in China’s law service market. My good understanding of Chinese and American laws will convince businessmen from both countries to trust me. † ( Ye, 2000, p. 1) As Ma said, the abilities that returnees possess are what a country or a company needs to succeed i n international competition. Their multi-cultural background, their communication skills and their ability of adaptation in their own field make them outstanding among employees. Besides the economic factors, in the past, another reason that would stop overseas scholars from returning was the strict control of scholars made by the government. Because of the control, the most violent issue happened in 4 June 1989. Students died, for their political status went against the government.Scholars were afraid of being deprived of freedom, both physically and politically (Zweig, 2006). They thought once they went back to China, they could never go abroad again and hardly could they communicate with international scholars. Considering of the life in future, many scholars refused to return home. Indeed, policies at that time were not open enough. Chinese government noticed that China was confronted with a serious problem that plenty of overseas talents chose to stay abroad. Only 20% of Chines e overseas scholars thought they might go back home according to Zweig’s survey which was done in 1993 (Zweig, 2006).Facing this obstacle, the authorities decided to support overseas scholars to come back to home and began to create friendly environment to welcome scholars. To encourage returning, the government has provides financial support to scholars through plenty of programs in recent 20 years. To illustrate how those programs work, the â€Å"thousand talents program† that was launched in 2008 is an appropriate example. The aim of this plan is to lure overseas scholars to go back to China and help their homeland to â€Å"raise its global competitiveness† and become â€Å"an innovative society† (Ford, 2012, para. 0). The Chinese government launched it to bring top scientists and high-tech entrepreneurs back home in the next five to 10 years. In this plan, the government is going to grant 1 million Yuan (about $146,000) per person as salary and resear ch fund. Then the government offers them insurance, housing and pensions, too. Thanks to this plan, over 2000 experts in varied field have gone back to China to start a new career during the last three years(Zhang, 2012,para. 1).The financial supports make the returnees’ road back to China easier. Not only the central government but also the local government attempts to attract overseas scholars. â€Å"Enterprise incubators† have been set up to offer opportunity to returnees to start their own business since 1994 (Zweig, 2006, & Liu, & Li, 2010). An â€Å"Enterprise incubator† is a special zone that provides preferential policies and service for overseas entrepreneurs, which makes it an appropriate zone for overseas scholars to begin from.According to the statistics cited in â€Å"Zhongguo liu xue tong shi† (The history of Chinese student studying abroad, Liu, & Li, 2010), in 2003, there were over 110 such zones in China, more than 6000 companies were fou nded in those zones, and over 15,000 overseas entrepreneurs were attracted to those zones. The annual output value of 2003 was 32. 7 billion Yuan (about $5. 24 billion). The success in these enterprise incubators may lure more overseas scholars to go home. Cultural binding with homeland also lures overseas scholars to go back to China.In a foreign country, it is probable for someone to suffer from nostalgia, discrimination, and other problems. And they would miss home and return to their familiar culture to avoid those problems. Family is an essential part of one’s cultural background. As a consequence, it acts as a firm bond between overseas scholars and their homeland. First, Kellogg, a researcher working on international migration at UCLA, did a survey on the future plans of Chinese students in America in 2012. According to the survey, the top one reason why they want to return home is family (Kellogg, 2012).It is suffering to stay far away from relatives and friends for a long period of time. Furthermore, because of one-child policy, the only child is what parents can rely on except for the welfare and pension when parents get old. In Chinese traditional convention, children should take care of the elder family members (Smith, 1973). So parents and children would like to live together, at least live nearby each other (Settles, Sheng, Zang, & Zhao, 2008). This will lead to an increasing number of overseas students to come back to China.Moreover, China, a familiar environment, may comfort these scholars and give them confidence in their career, which is an attraction to scholars who stays abroad. Integration into the local society is a troublesome problem to Chinese students. In a survey done by a website named deyi which is a popular website among Chinese students in Germany (2007) about the students’ situation in the local society, only seven percent of students assert that they have no problem to join the main stream. Others encountered prob lems more or less (as cited in Liu & Li, 2010, p. 88-491) To evade this, some of them tend to limit their social contact to a small group of Chinese people and confine their career to lab when they graduate, which lead to the result that they have less communication with the main stream and it becomes more troublesome for them to integrate into the society (Miller, 1992 & Liu & Li, 2010). On the other hand, their situation in China is different from that abroad. An overseas scholar has both a native knowledge of his or her homeland and the ability to use Chinese fluently.That is the basis of overseas scholars’ confidence. When they strike root in their homeland, they gain confidence. Chaoyang Zhang, the CEO of sohu (Sohu is one of the most successful Internet companies in China. )and a returnee, shares his experience: â€Å" When I was an official at MIT, I met Zhangliang Chen (He is a famous experts of tropical botany in China and he studied in Washington University in St. Louis. ) once. From his expression and the look in his eyes, I could see the authority and firmness that he gained during the years when he was in China.His confidence and pride are what overseas students and successful overseas scholars do not have. That is result of striking root in homeland. The difference is so enormous to make me shocked, which strengthen my determination to go back to China. † ( Liu & Li, 2010, p. 587) The confidence based on living in homeland cannot usually be gained elsewhere. On the other hand, the cultural binding with homeland may be a disadvantage of Chinese scholars when they live abroad. Chinese scholars and those who have already mmigrated to foreign country may experience discrimination from others. The glass ceiling exists, which according to Joseph Tsien, a American neuroscientist from China, is â€Å"an unspoken truth† (Mervis, 2005, p. 607). A glass ceiling means that a certain barrier blocks the advancement to a relatively high pos ition faced by minority in a society. Because of culture gap and language barrier, most of the scholars from China find they can not totally understand the foreign culture (Liu, & Li, 2010).As a result, many of them can have fame and achievement in their own field as scientists but only a few of them can get a job of senior management in their field (Mervis, 2005). Alice Huang, a successful virologist who came from mainland China to America when she was 10 years old, encountered the barrier in her application to a high- level job in New York University in 1991. During her interview, she found out that what the committee was searching for is a WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant) candidate and the committee set barriers to make Huang give up that position. In the end, she lost that position (Miller, 1992).Since evaluation, which may be subjective, is a key step in process of promotion, one, not belonging to the main stream, may be afraid of the unequal judgment done by the evaluating committee which consists of the majority. Scholars want to prove their value and be accepted by the society. But the existed barriers prevent scholars from getting higher positions and realize their plans. Under this condition, scholars would believe that they will be minority and nearly impossible to be integrated to mainstream, which may hurt scholars and drive them to go home (Liu, & Li, 2010).However, the racial discrimination to those overseas scholars will be eliminated in their homeland. They will be honored in China. Experiences of studying and working abroad are called â€Å"paint a little gold† (du jin) in Chinese (Zweig, Chen, & Rosen, 2004, p. 736), which means returnees are regarded precious in China. To conclude, the three keys to Chinese reverse brain drain are dramatic growth in the economics, proper policies that encourage overseas scholars to return and a cultural environment that can give returnees a sense of belonging.Through the success of China’s alluring scholars back, power plays a significant role. To encourage more overseas scholars to go back, the authorities should concentrate on developing the economy to gain more hard power. Moreover, an open political environment is necessary, for overseas scholars have experienced freedom in political status. Furthermore, for moving the trend of returning further, the government should not only concentrate on the quantity of the returnees but also the quality of the returnees. Reference: Alsop, R. (2007). TRACK: More Chinese Graduates Return Home.The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://online. wsj. com/article/SB11737448221373 4773. html Castles, S. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and freedom? Lessons of the global economic crisis. Ethnic & Racial Studies, 35(11), 1843-1852. doi:10. 1080/01419870. 2012. 715662 Confucius, C. (2006). â€Å"Lun yu† ming yan =: Aphorisms From LUNYU. Di 1 ban. Jinan: Qi lu shu she. Engardio, P. ,& Engardio, P. (2009). China's Rev erse Brain Drain. BloomberBusinessweek. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/ 09_48/b4157058821350. tm Ford, P. (2012). Reverse brain drain: China engineers incentives for â€Å"brain gain†. Christian Science Monitor, Retrieved from http://www. csmonitor. com/World/Global-Issues /2012/1021/Reverse-brain-drain-China-engineers-incentives-for-brain-gain International Rankings and Chinese Higher Education Reform. (2006). World Education News and Reviews. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www. wes. org/ ewenr/06oct/ practical. htm. Jianshu, Z. (2000). Students Returned from Abroad in the 1990s. Chinese Education & Society, 33(5), 8. Kellogg, R. (2012).China's Brain Gain? : Attitudes and Future Plans of Overseas Chinese Students in the US. Journal Of Chinese Overseas, 8(1), 83-104. doi:10. 1163/179325412X634319 Liu, J. , & Li, X. (2010). Zhongguo liu xue tong shi: Zhongguo liuxue tongshi. Di 1 ban. Guangzhou: Guangdong jiao yu chu ba n she Llana, S. , Ford, P. , Marquand, R. , Pflanz, M. , & Ibukun, Y. (2012). Reverse brain drain: Economic shifts lure migrants home. Christian Science Monitor, N. PAG. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2011). China statistical yearbook 2011. Beijing: China Statistics Press.Settles, B. , Sheng, X. , Zang, Y. & Zhao, J. (2008). The one child policy and its impacts on Chinese families. Research Committee on Family, 12-13. Smith, D. (1973). Confucius. London: Temple Smith. Wang, Z. (2012). Ten years of international companies since China entered WTO. International Financing. Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www. zcom. com/ article/51886/ Yan, J. (1998). My heart turns toward the homeland. Chinese Education & Society,31(2), 57. Ye, L. (2000). Overseas students coming back at a golden time. Beijing Review, 43(6/7), 20. Zhang, Y. (2012).Thousand Talent Program brings more pros. China Daily, Retrieved from http://www. chinadaily. com. cn/bizchina/2012-04/28/content_15168335. htm. Zweig, D. , Changgui, C. , & Rosen, S. (2004). Globalization and transnational human capital: Overseas and returnee scholars to china. The China Quarterly, 735-757. Zweig, D. (2006). Competing for talent: China's strategies to reverse the brain drain. International Labour Review,145(1), 65-0_6. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com. ezproxy. library. wisc. edu/docview/224008850? accountid=465 ———————– 1

Ba Na Hill

Last year, I met a lot of trouble and suffer from stress because of hard working and studying. Therefore, I spent one day with my family to have a trip to Bana Hill and it has left many deep impression for me. After this trip, I Ba Na – Chua Mount Tourist Area is located in Hoa Vang District, 30km from the centre of Danang City so it took me about 1 hour to arrive at Dream Creek Station of Ba Na hills by car. Then, we bought tickets to ride by cable car which is the longest cable car in the world.A modern system of cable cars helps us get a bird's-eye view, very miraculous and attractive while enjoying a feeling of flying in the blue sky amidst the clouds and wind. Sitting on carbin cable suspended between the middle cloud, looking down at the vast mountains below, we saw many majestic forests and spectacular waterfalls,. After 15 minute, in front of my eyes, the French’s village was hidden in fogs. It was very ancient and splended with many old castle which is Frenchâ €™s architecture. I'm sure that anybody who has visited Ba Na can't forget this village.Arrive at Gare Ba Na, the first thing we noticed when approaching this gare were some villas perched on a hill top or hillside, behind thick pine forests and almost invisible on this foggy morning. Then,we walked to Fantasy Park which is so modern and attractive. I felt like here was Disney Land. There are funny games for children and thrilling ones for youth and older. At international indoor entertainment amusement Fantasy Park, there are 3 food and beverage areas served European, Asian foods, retail shop with many kinds of products. Next, we visited to one of the biggest temples of Ba Na hills which have a huge Buddha’s statue.In the alley, there was chirping birds, delicate flowery perfumes and many butterflies circled around. The courtyard of the temple is lined with stone. All tiredness seemed to disappear when we see the Buddha’s statue which stand out from and the tranqu il atmosphere of this temple. Visitor to Ba Na in summer can feel the climate of four seasons in one day. In the morning and afternoon, it is cool like the weather of spring and autumn. At noon, it is as sunny and cloudless as the weather of summer. And it is cold in the evening. The main attraction is exploring the forest paths and wandering among the ruined villas.In night, we enjoyed the cold air of Ba Na like winter. Then, we joined to camp-fire with other visitors, sang funny songs and danced together. End of the day, we returned to the hotel to sleep and prepare to leave Ba Na. The breathtaking sights from the top of the mountain make the viewers feel like there really is a different life as they enjoy the happiness of the things that are never known in a bustling urban lifestyle. No one can't deny that Ba Na hill is a masterpiece of nature and a pride of Da Nang city. So what a pity if I don't visit Ba Na to relax and enjoy the beauty of nature with my families.

Anglo-Saxon Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Anglo-Saxon Britain - Essay Example Both had an array of followers who both believed they were following the true Christian faith. During 597 AD and 601, Augustine began his mission by first baptizing the first Christian king of ASE. After this, Ethelbert then allowed missionary activities to proceed in the kingdom. By the end of that year, approximately 10,000 king subjects had already accepted the new creed before Augustine ordained to be bishop. When Christianity was heading to its peak Pope Gregory advocated for complete elimination of paganism in Anglo Saxon. This is by commissioning those mandated with spreading the gospel Christianize all heathen temples as well as dissuading people from carrying on with paganism. This study seeks to relay more information concerning development of ASC and how the works of early saints facilitated to its success. This saint descended from a noble family in Wessel, England as Wilfred whereby he attended a monastery under abbot Wulfhard and at nursling against his farther wishes. While in the monastery, he studied theology and became a Benedictine monk at the age of 30 years then ordained as a priest. King Radbod denied him opportunities to evangelize in Frisia despite his attempts. Back in England, he learnt of the demise of his abbort in Nursling and he declined the offer to take his position because he still wanted to pursue his missionary career. This shows he was a man of purpose and full of dedication. In 718, he accompanied some Anglo Saxon pilgrims to Rome whereby the pope sent him on a mission to baptize pagans in Germania He baptized using the Roman formula and not the Celtic. During this encounter, the pope renamed him Boniface. Following Radbod’s demise, the saint went back to Frisia in a missionary expedition where he worked with Willibrord, the apostle of the Frisians. It is this reason why the pope could not assign him anywhere else except in Frisia. Hence, he his mission

Daytime Talk Shows Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Daytime Talk Shows - Essay Example Laura Grindstaff discusses the various things that occur behind the scenes when Talk Shows are being prepared. There are things that she points out that I never thought of like that and some that I did not know. Talk shows have a lot of strange spaces of matters to be discussed. Matters like misuse, manipulation, consent and choice within the context of entertainment are clearly depicted in Talk shows. The entertainment context itself is embedded in bigger cultural landscapes with social inequality as its character. Grindstaff argues that unlike other elites and celebrities shown on television, the† ordinary people† who come as guests in the talk show at daytime are forced to be emotional about their lives and private affairs to attract and entice audiences. She believes that for talk shows, it is necessary to manipulate the people so as to create moments that are dramatic. The dramatic scenes seen on the daytime talk shows are not stories of natural occurrences but rathe r directed by producers (Shuyisun 1).Identify the thesis of the article and criteria the author states or implies for assessing responsibility. If the author does not draw a conclusion about the criteria say so and explain what you think they should be.In the â€Å"Daytime talk show† article, Grindstaff proposes that as much as the daytime talk show makes profit and entertainment from the privacy of people, the show stages a platform for manipulation in the context of entertainment.

Research methods Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words - 1

Research methods - Assignment Example In addition, this project will generate both employment and wealth. On behalf of the Ministry of transport and the sponsor Ministry of finance, the project will be implemented in two phases with various contracts, under the supervision of the Saudi railways organisation. The civil works in charge of the construction of civil works for the route such as earth work and bridges has been awarded to one Consortium of four contractors, three Saudi companies and one Chinese company. The work started in April 2009 for a total period of three years and total value of 6.5 billion Saudi Riyal. The construction of four passenger stations was awarded to one Saudi-Turkish Consortium of two companies, Jeddah central and King Abdullah Economic City awarded to Saudi consortium of two companies. The trains and railway infrastructure and systems that encompasses all civil and infrastructure work that was not included in phase one, procurement of rolling stock, tracks and systems, in addition to operation and maintenance of the transportation system for a period of 12 years after commissioning. This contract was awarded to Saudi-Spanish Consortium in January 2012 for a total of 34 months. The Operation Control Centre (OCC) located in the area of the Jeddah Station will ensure and control a high level of safety and security through monitoring by several integrated systems, the automatic train traffic control and security functions, telecommunications network in order to provide radio contact between train and ground, providing on board and on ground security systems with many functions and services. The Supervisory Control and Data Control that will monitor the power supply systems , a Closed Circuit Television system that will be used to monitor the whole railway line and building security systems. The minimum spacing between the trains is set at four minutes and according to

House of Representatives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

House of Representatives - Essay Example Although it is necessary to be active within the campaign as a means of maintaining notoriety and engaging with the stakeholders at home, seeking to spend two large a share of time on the campaign trail opens up a distinct vulnerability within the reelection campaign itself. In such a way, the opponent is able to point to the fact that the representative is somehow shirking his or her duties and not being present at the job and votes for which he/she is paid for. In such a way, even if it disproportional level of time to spend seeking to listen to and gain stakeholder feedback with regards to the campaign trail, such a tactic and easily backfire upon the representative due to the fact that missed votes and lack of participation within the House of Representatives has the potential to lead the voter to understand that the particular representative in question does not value or take very seriously their role within the process of representation. As a function of this reality, the best strategy to pursue is with regards to seeking to adequately balance the amount of time is spent on the campaign trail as well as serving within the House of Representatives. ... As a function of proving to the populace that they value and take seriously their role, it is the responsibility of the representative to also seek to engage with stakeholders while on the campaign trail as a means of listening to, identifying, and seeking to ameliorate their specific concerns rather than merely campaigning in seeking to generate votes for a future term. †¢ b. What issues might you emphasize over the next few months as you campaign and give speeches on the House floor? How are these issues related to your constituency, their demographics, and their values? Give at least three examples. (20 points, 300 words) Ultimately, the question of what issues to support and few months prior to election is ultimately an issue of visibility. In such a way, the representative is able to make themselves known on both a nationwide in domestic platform as a prominent advocate of values that resonates with the populace that they represent. Although this technically should be pract iced at each and every juncture of a House of Representatives member’s career, it cannot and should not be ignored in the final few months leading up to an election. One of the current issues that is bound to generate a degree of residence, whether for or against, is the issue of gun control. In such a way, if the representative seeks a liberalization of current gun control measures, they can of course rely upon the Bill of Rights, various political action groups, and social conservatives as a means of providing a level of residence with regards to this particular topic. Conversely, if they seek to support a further level of gun control as a means of averting violence within the United States, they can

Research Project, Focus, Type Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Research Project, Focus, Type - Essay Example An entrepreneur could not commence a new venture or expand an existing business without accurate and updated information. Nonetheless, the pertinent information about the chosen country, economy, political conditions, laws and regulations, environment, technology, demographics, psychographics, behavioral, cultural and social factors, competitors and market potential is obtained through secondary and primary research. For instance, this marketing research and data collection should be considered as a useful project, because it becomes essential for survival, growth and sustainability of a business entity. The marketers than analyse this information and use for innovation, branding and differentiation. The information garnered will be analyzed and evaluated to develop certain alternatives and policies that could benefit the restaurant as a whole. For instance, the research project will help identifying new business opportunities followed by gaps in market. This would later benefit in expansion and betterment. In addition, the research will study societal changes, purchasing power and consumption trends after which we could improve our existing marketing and advertising campaigns, internal display and food products. The research will include primary (through surveys, focus groups and interviews) and secondary (available online published articles, journals, reviews, reports etc.) information. In addition, it would be comprehensive and descriptive in nature because the researcher will cover all major marketing related issues and points. The economic recession has resulted in massive unemployment and decline in consumer purchasing power (real incomes); therefore, customers demand high quality food products at reasonably lower prices. In other words, price factor will now play the most important role in success and prosperity of the restaurant in tough economic conditions. The literature would be gathered initially through secondary research because it is easily available and cheaper than primary (first hand) information. Websites, online databases, digital communities (Face Book, twitter, my space etc) and web logs may provide sufficient literature that could be used as a starting point. Any weaknesses and irrelevance will then be removed through collection of primary data.

Madonna and child Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Madonna and child - Research Paper Example hild Jesus – the main characters in â€Å"Madonna and Child.† Except for Jesus, son of God the Father by Christian faith, there are no other gods and goddesses in the image. The scenery of Madonna, which translates to ‘Our Lady’, and her Christ Child provides relation to Catholic worship of Mary as a Virgin Mother or a woman handpicked by the Divine to conceive for a Holy Child, out of purity. Each of the persons in this biblical theme of Duccio’s work – identified as Mary and Jesus, are dressed in what appears to be a black silken garment and a customary tunic in peach and brown, respectively. Mary and Jesus are in a position where Mary, looking out as though to make contact with audience’s point of sight in calm sacred radiance, holds Jesus close to her bosom while Jesus warmly and innocently gazes at her with an iconic holy sign in the fingers of his right hand. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. â€Å"Madonna and Child – Duccio di Buoninsegna.† The Collection Online. 2000 – 2014. Web. 10 Nov 2014.

Think of your own Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Think of your own - Essay Example E-coins have significantly simplified the activities involved in the exchange of goods and services. There is a growth in the popularity of the e-coin usage. The growth of e-coin users presents Goldman Sachs with a viable opportunity that needs to be utilized (Meiklejohn et al. pp 1-10). For Goldman Sachs to acquire a strategic position in the future investment industry, it is crucial to introduce e-coin services to its portfolio. E-coins have numerous advantages that have contributed to their growing popularity (Meiklejohn et al, pp.20-25). The number of e-coin users has grown at a high rate in recent times. By April 2015, the number of e-coin users stood at over 3million. The number of e-coin transactions is also on the increase with over 120,000 transactions per day as at March 2015. The e-coin market value is also inclining. These trends provide Goldman Sachs an opportunity to utilize in its quest to maintain competitive advantage over its rivals. With such high rates of growth in various e-coin components, the investment industry is expected to react. Investment executives from different firms are examining the e-coin market to assess the feasibility of earning good returns from it. It will be appropriate for Goldman Sachs to act before its competitors since there is growing attention towards this opportunity from various investment companies. E-coin transactions are quick. A typical e-coin transaction only takes 5 minutes. Bank transactions across different borders take up to 5 days. E–coin transactions do not have charge transaction fees. The short time that e-coin transactions take will Ensure that Goldman Sachs handle more transactions that will in turn translate to increased revenues. Transaction costs will also decline since e-coin transactions do not charge transaction fees. The amount of cost minimized will contribute to increasing profits for Goldman Sachs. E-coins are not controlled or regulated by central

Reconstruction After the American Civil War Essay Example for Free

Reconstruction After the American Civil War Essay The civil war is considered by many the most important war that our country has endured. During the 5 year Civil War, not only did 620,000 men die, but our nation was left in ruins. It was necessary that our country be rebuilt from bottom up. Abraham Lincoln, said to be the brightest president of his time, had plans and ideas for reconstruction. Unfortunately, these plans were failed to be put in place due to the fact of his assassination on April 14, 1865. Throughout some of the most politically tough years our nation has experienced (1865-1877) lousy presidents were elected, plans and bills failed and succeeded, and struggles with civil rights were prominent everywhere. The United State’s hopeful plans for reconstructing and reuniting slowly faded until it was all gone The most important part of reconstruction would probably have to be the beginning, or where it all started. Reconstruction of our nation began unofficially in 1863 with Lincoln’s 10% plan. Because Lincoln wanted a reunited nation as easily and quickly as possible, he entailed that only 10% of the confederates in each state would have to swear allegiance in order for the state to be accepted back into the union. Because of the small number of confederates needed to swear allegiance, the radical republicans in congress were angered and proposed the Wade-Davis Bill. The Wade-Davis bill was intended to make congress responsible for reconstruction rather than the president, and also stated that the majority (not 10%) would have to swear allegiance in each state to be re-accepted into the union. For the good of the united states, not for selfish reasons, Lincoln vetoed (or declined) the bill. Because Lincoln was assassinated, the rest of his plans and hopes for reconstruction were n ever put to use, and his vice-president, Andrew Johnson, took the Presidential role. As reconstruction continued on, it brought many major achievements that greatly benefited our country. One of the greatest accomplishments of reconstruction was the Fifteenth Amendment. The Fifteenth Amendment stated that everyone has a right to vote no matter what â€Å"race, color, or previous condition of servitude† was. Because many whites didn’t like this, they wouldn’t cooperate with the amendment and would go as far as using violence to make blacks not vote. Because of this congress used the Enforcement Act of 1870 which entailed that federal governments would be able to punish those that were causing problems for the African Americans. Going along with the fifteenth amendment, reconstruction brought another achievement, a new life and society for former slaves. Supported by the government, former slaves were able to create new lives for themselves. Although it took hard work and dedication, African Americans were able to create schooling systems, churches and volunteer groups and fight against segregation. Former slaves were able to reunite with their families, and blacks were even finally allowed a spot in politics. The final greatest achievement of reconstruction was reuniting our country. Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and the other four states all re-entered the union by 1870. By originally initiating reconstruction, this is what Lincoln was shooting for. Although they still had political and economic differences, they were once again a reunited nation. With every great movement and political plan, lasting effects come along with it. During reconstruction many things were accomplished, which means that our nation was faced with many positive and negative effects. Some of the positive effects included new opportunities for the common public and former slaves. For example, the common public was presented with its first public school system, new roads and railroads, as well as orphanages for children and institutions for the mentally ill. One of the negative effects of the war was the physically and economically drained south. After the war, the south was in extremely poor physical condition and most everything had to be either rebuilt or restored. This was going to cost sufficient amounts of money that the south did not have. To get the money, the taxes rose and the wages lowered. Many people were without family members that died in the civil war, and the south’s population had decreased drastically. Another lasting effect that reconstruction left on our nation was a dent on the farms and plantations in the south. Many farms and plantations in the south had been ruined. Poor whites and African Americans were at disagreement with rich whites on what the farm land should be used as. Rich whites wanted to restore the plantation system and poor whites and African Americans wanted to create small farms and subsistence farming. Labor was also down. With many men dying in the war, not as many people were left to work on the farms. When the plantations were reopened, many African Americans and poor whites worked on the plantations in exchange for housing, food, clothing, etc. Many good and bad effects were left on our nation from reconstruction. Although reconstruction was a good recovery point for our nation, it was slowly ended in 1877 for a collection of reasons. One of the largest problems was whites inflicting violence on African Americans to prevent them from exercising their rights. During reconstruction, Americans struggled with anti-black radicals such as the Ku Klux Klan. They destroyed buildings, personal property, harmed the African Americans, and even went as far as killing them. The goal of the Ku Klux Klan was to restore white supremacy. By 1880 terrorist groups had restored white supremacy in the south. Along with terrorist groups, political troubles were also in the nation’s way. General Ulysses S. Grant was elected president in 1872. Because Grant was inexperienced, he brought his friends into high positions and many scandals resulted. Because of all of the scandals, many people became irritated and more conflict arose. Last but not least, the United States was experiencing economic turmoil. The panic of 1873 was one of the main reasons that focus was turned away from reconstruction. A man named Jay Cooke invested a grand amount of money in railroads and not enough investors bought shares, causing Cooke to spiral into debt. Because of this Cooke’s banking firm (largest in the nation) went bankrupt. Many small banks and businesses closed and the stock market closed. Millions lost their jobs. Because of this five year depression, the focus of the country was turned away from reconstruction. Reconstruction lasted a solid 13 years that were filled with many great improvements and countless lasting effects on our country. While enduring many severe losses and challenges brought on by the Civil War, the United States pushed through and reunited. We will always be affected by this era in our country’s history. Throughout many failed presidencies, failed and passed bills and movements, and continuous struggles with civil rights, America became the country it is tod ay. From the achievements to the collapse of reconstruction, I believe it was completely necessary and left many lasting effects, good and bad, on our country.

Marriage and Holy Orders

Marriage and Holy Orders Here is the question Since Vatican 2 the sacraments of Marriage and Holy Orders have been understood as sacraments of Christian ministry. How is this understanding of these two sacraments reflected in the churchs contemporary theology of Marriage and Holy Orders? Several individuals have been concerned with the understanding of the sacraments of holy matrimony and the holy orders in the churchs contemporary theology. for instance 1st a The Catholic custom educates that sacraments are an outward signs, incidents that are clear in our understanding, of the unseen truth of Gods grace in our lives, which is practiced only indirectly by its consequence on our lives. And the customary lessons goes further. Not only do sacraments spot the approaching of grace with a noticeable symbol, but they bring about the realism of refinement by the means they connect us to the person of Jesus Christ present in the society which is his house of worship. In the case of the sacraments of occupation this is clear in the way these sacraments begin individuals into a duty, a service, in the church society. since the outcome of the sacraments is connected to the outer symbol, which should be as comprehensible and fluent as possible. To a great level the society itself is constitutive of the symbol, and is thus vital in calling forward the gifts of the occupation in which each individual is well-known and established in each sacrament of oc cupation. 1st b The Bible pioneers us to a widespread custom of sacramental movement.For example the Hebrew Scriptures do not utilize any phrase that we would interpret as sacrament, but portray acts of worship base on representation. The most significant of these is the Passover festivity, but there are many others. However, in the New Testament Jesus built on these obtainable customs of worship, as well as on the narratives and descriptions of the Scriptures in his events and in his teachings. Consequently, the sacraments we rejoice in nowadays are all developed from these events and teachings of Jesus. And that is why we refer to Matrimony Holy Orders as the sacraments of occupation, a statement that originates from the Latin for call. Meaning that, all of us are called by God. As a matter of fact, we are called at different levels, and increasingly all through our lives, we are called into existence, into human self-respect and accountability, and into certain associations, societies and tasks. Most significantly ,we are called into an cherished spiritual union with God that does not come as expected but must be required and refined within the grace, or a particular outreach, of God. The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. 2nd part The Christian perception is that, despite the fact all of the complex human tradition of disputes and competitions, maltreatment and unfairness, chauvinism and eliminations, matrimony in the grace of Christ are redemptive. They are authorized to exceed all the troubles and to make families and relationships all over the community that bring health and completeness and pleasure both within their individual family circle and in the wider society. This too is an necessary part of building the church, the society of the believers of Jesus. This also is a sacrament of occupation, of the passion to build up the church that contributes in the work of salvation. The sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus; the matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. When we perceive the complementarily of these sacraments of occupation, we are observing the house of worship in a manner that may be new and thus seems odd. Some may even imagine that this is a more Protestant method of observing our Christian being collectively and at the nature and purpose of the house of worship. So far this organic means of viewing the house of worship and our positions inside it is built right into our sacramental performance and our theology of the sacraments. In addition, essentially and theologically there is no shared exceptionality between the sacraments of Matrimony Holy Orders. Though the present regulation of the Catholic church needs celibacy of its priests, that has not all time and all over been so. An individual can be named to assist in the building up of the body of the risen Christ, which is the society of followers, in two ways. He can be the one to bring the society collectively in Eucharist as well as being one of individuals who build up the society family by family in weaving the redemptive relations. The two sacraments of occupation, similar to the entire sacraments, are not just celebrations that occur in a given moment and then are history. They are ongoing and continuously unfolding the truth in our existence as we remain heading towards full salvation and change that move us towards redemption, which is our correct connection with God and thus with one another. The main fundamental calling of a believer is the call into discipleship of Jesus in a society of disciples. Thus the main fundamental sacrament of calling is in fact baptism, or more precisely initiation which is celebrated in first Eucharist, Confirmation, and Baptism. It initiates an individual into the membership and life of the house of worship. Therefore, the solemn festivity simultaneously of the heavenly invitation, of the reply of the person, and of the welcome of the society which is both the local meeting of followers of Jesus, and the great general People of God, the international church. Nothing is actually superior or closer in the association we have with our maker than the grace and vocation of baptism. However, that vocation expressed by baptism, that calling of the baptized, plays out in different ways for different individuals. Amongst our 7 sacramental celebrations, we recognize this by a series of festivities shared by all, and by 2 festivities focused on the 2 crucial ways in which the church as society of salvation in the world is built up. And these 2 are usually identified as the sacraments of vocation. Ordained members and Holy Orders See also: Catholic Church hierarchy, College of Bishops, Priesthood (Catholic Church),and Deacon Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[137][138] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).[139] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the S ick.[140] A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[141][142] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.[143] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[144][145] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.[146] All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[147] They are designed by national bishops conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.[148] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[149] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[139] Because the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[150] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,[151] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.[152] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.[153] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VIs statement If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities.[153] [edit] Lay members, Marriage See also: Laity The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a bodyall being important to enable the body to function.[154] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christs priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[155] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[139] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.[156] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be gra nted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[157] Natural family planning is approved.[158] Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[159] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[159] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[160] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.[161] [edit] matrimony and orders After definition (done) The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. The 2 sacraments 4th part Finally, this brings us to the sacraments at the service of communion; the sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus, The matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. [92] By the eleventh century ordination had come to be generally considered a sacrament. [93] With the advent of Vatican II and the publication of the document The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum concilium) the Church states the prayers addressed to God by the priest who, in the person of Christ, presides over the assembly, are said in the name of the entire holy people and of all present. [94] That is, the priest acts for and in the name of the entire Eucharistic community. In further Vatican II documents the role of the priest is stated as thus: by reason of their sacerdotal dignity; and in virtue of the sacrament of Orders, after the image of Christ, the supreme and eternal priest they are consecrated in order to preach the Gospel and shepherd the faithful as well as to celebrate divine worship as true priests of the New Testament However, it is in the eucharistic cult or in the eucharistic assembly of the faithful that they exercise their sacred functions and in the sacrifice of the Mass they make present again the unique sacrifice of the New Testament, that namely of Christ offering a spotless victim to the Father. [95] Once again the centrality of the Eucharist is evident. It is through the Eucharistic ministry of the priest that the presence of Christ can be actualised for the community of believers. [96] With the reception of this sacrament certain men are seen to receive a sacred power in order to serve the faithful through teaching, divine worship and pastoral governance. [97] The Church therefore sees the ordained priesthood as a means by which Christ unceasingly builds up and leads [Christs] Church. Marriage The Council brought about two major changes in our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. First, the Council speaks of marriage as a covenant. The marriage covenant helps us think in biblical and interpersonal categories that reach beyond the legal categories of the marriage contract. The marriage covenant is a symbol of Gods covenant with humanity. Second, the Council taught that the purpose of marriage is not only to produce children but also to enable the couple to support one another in mutual love. Marriage is an intimate partnership of life and love (Church in the Modern World, #48). We look to the married couple as a sacrament, a sign to the world of Gods love. Both of these changes enrich our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. But they also open the door to new questions: Who is capable of a sacramental marriage? What are the qualities and conditions necessary for a marriage to be a sign of Gods love for the Church? In a time when Catholic marriages are vulnerable to the stresses of modern life, the Churchs support of married couples is vital. Holy Orders When we think of Holy Orders we usually think of the sacrament by which one becomes a priest. But Holy Orders ends in s because it names three sacramental orders: the Order of the Episcopate (bishops), the Order of Presbyters (priests), and the Order of Deacons. The Council had important things to say about each of these. The Order of the Episcopate (Bishops). The Council affirmed that a bishop is ordained to the fullness of the Sacrament of Orders. By his ordination a bishop becomes a member of the College of Bishops and assumes responsibility not only for his own local Church but also for the universal Church. The Order of Presbyters (Priests). We have all witnessed the drastic decline in the number of priests. Empty rectories, merged parishes, closed seminaries, Sunday Celebrations in the Absence of a Priestthe bishops of Vatican II envisioned none of these things. The Council made two major changes that radically affected the lives of priests. First, while the ordained have specific ministries within the Church, the Council affirmed that the basis of all ministry is Baptism into the Body of Christ. Second, the Council placed the priest in the midst of the baptized and said that priests should work together with the lay faithful (Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests, Presbyterorum Ordinis, #9). To go from being set apart from the faithful to living in the midst of the faithful was a big change. The Council affirmed that priests are in a certain sense set apart but they are not to be separated from the People of God because priests cannot serve the faithful if they are strangers to their lives and conditions (PO, #3). Has this change in identity contributed to the decline in the number of priests? The Order of Deacons. Deacons had ministered in the Western Church until about the fifth century. By the time of the Second Vatican Council, the Order of Deacons was simply a transitional stage for those passing through on their way to the priesthood. The Council restored the Order of Deacons, making it a permanent ministry in the Church. The bishops of the Council decided to permit married men to be ordained deacons. In 1967 there were no permanent deacons; today there are over 30,000 deacons worldwide. PREPARATION FOR THE SACRAMENT OF MARRIAGE INTRODUCTION 1. Preparation for marriage, for married and family life, is of great importance for the good of the Church. In fact, the sacrament of Marriage has great value for the whole Christian community and, in the first place, for the spouses whose decision is such that it cannot be improvised or made hastily. In the past, this preparation could count on the support of society which recognized the values and benefits of marriage. Without any difficulties or doubts, the Church protected the sanctity of marriage with the awareness that this sacrament represented an ecclesial guarantee as the living cell of the People of God. At least in the communities that were truly evangelized, the Churchs support was solid, unitary and compact. In general, separations and marriage failures were rare, and divorce was considered a social plague (cf. Gaudium et Spes = GS, 47). Today, on the contrary, in many cases, we are witnessing an accentuated deterioration of the family and a certain corrosion of the values of marriage. In many nations, especially economically developed ones, the number of marriages has decreased. Marriage is usually contracted at a later age and the number of divorces and separations is increasing, even during the first years of married life. All this inevitably leads to a pastoral concern that comes up repeatedly: Are the persons contracting marriage really prepared for it? The problem of preparation for the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows emerges as a great pastoral need, first for the sake of the spouses, for the whole Christian community and for society. Therefore, interest in, and initiatives for providing adequate and timely answers to preparation for the sacrament of Marriage are growing everywhere. 2. Through on-going contact with the Episcopal Conferences and the Bishops in various meetings, and especially their ad limina visits, the Pontifical Council for the Family has carefully followed the pastoral concern regarding the preparation and celebration of the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows. The Council has been repeatedly asked to offer an instrument for the preparation of Christian engaged persons which the present document represents. The Council has also drawn on the contributions from many Apostolic Movements, Groups and Associations working for the pastoral care of the family who have offered their support, advice and experience for the preparation of these guidelines. Marriage preparation constitutes a providential and favourable period for those oriented toward this Christian sacrament, and a Kayrà ³s, i.e., a period in which God calls upon the engaged and helps them discern the vocation to marriage and family life. The engagement period is set within the context of a rich evangelization process. In fact, questions that affect the family converge in the life of the engaged, the future spouses. They are therefore invited to understand the meaning of the responsible and mature love of the community of life and love which their family will be, a real domestic church which will contribute toward enriching the whole Church. The importance of this preparation involves a process of evangelization which is both maturation and deepening in the faith. If the faith is weak or almost nonexistent (cf. Familiaris Consortio = FC 68), it must be revived. Thorough, patient instruction that arouses and nourishes the ardor of a living faith cannot be excluded. Especially where the environment has become paganized, it will be particularly advisable to offer a journey of faith, which is similar to the catechumenate (FC 66), and a presentation of the fundamental Christian truths that may help acquire or strengthen the maturity of the faith of the persons contracting marriage. It would be desirable if the favourable moment of marriage preparation could be transformed, as a sign of hope, into a New Evangelization for the future families. 3. This particular attention is highlighted by the teachings of the Second Vatican Council (GS 52), the guidelines of the Papal Magisterium (FC 66), the ecclesial norms themselves (Codex Iuris Canonici = CIC, can. 1063; Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium = CCEO, can. 783), the Catechism of the Catholic Church (n. 1632), and other documents of the Magisterium, including the Charter of the Rights of the Family. The two most recent documents of the Papal Magisterium the Letter to Families Gratissimam Sane and the Encyclical Evangelium Vitae (= EV) constitute a notable aid for our task. The Sacraments of Vocation and Commitment: Matrimony and Holy Order (Vatican II) As happened with so many other theological and pastoral questions, the Catholic Churchs perspective on marriage was significantly modified by the Second Vatican Council. In contrast with previous official pronouncements and conventional theological and canonical insights, the council adopts a remarkably personalistic standpoint. It no longer uses the traditional term contract to describe the marriage bond. Instead, the council speaks of the marriage covenant which is sealed by an irrevocable personal consent (Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, n. 48). Second, neither does the council continue to employ the old distinction between primary and secondary ends in which the begetting of children is always more important than the mutual love of (two people). Hence, while not making the other ends of marriage of less value, the true practice of conjugal love, and the whole nature of family life resulting from it, tend to dispose the spouses to cooperate courageously with the love of the creator and Savior who through them day by day expands and enriches His own family (n. 50, italics McBriens). Third, the sacrament of marriage is not something added to the marriage union established through mutual human love. Authentic married love is taken up into divine love and is ruled and enriched by the redemptive power of Christ and the salvific action of the Church (n. 48). This new emphasis in the theology of marriage is consistent with the claims of contemporary sociology that this is the first age in which people marry and remain in marriage because they love each other. And so there is this stress on the mutual exchange of love constituting the sacrament of marriage, on married love as the source of the institution of marriage, on the need for growth in this love to bring the sacrament to its full realization, and on the need for the Church constantly to bring forth the witness value of this sacrament to the whole community of faith. As (two people) are called to be faithful, generous, and gracious to each other in fulfillment of their marriage covenant, so is the whole Church called to be faithful to its covenant with God in Christ. Fourth, the council emphasizes the necessity of a faith commitment for the sacrament of marriage (see Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 59). Marriage is not just a ceremony by which two people are legally bound together. As a sacrament, it is an act of worship, and expression of faith, a sign of the Churchs unity, a mode of Christs presence. . Fifth, the full consummation of marriage is more than a biological act. The old theology and the old canon law asserted that a marriage between two baptized Christians, once performed according to the rite of the Church (ratum) and once consummated by a single act of physical union (consummatum), can never be dissolved, not even by the pope. But according to the council, the expression of the mutual love which is at the heart of the sacrament consists of more than biological union. It involves the good of the whole person. Therefore it can enrich the expressions of body and mind with a unique dignity, ennobling these expressions as special ingredients and signs of friendship distinctive of marriage. Such love pervades the whole of (the spouses) lives (n. 49) Finally, the broader ecclesial dimension of the sacrament is maintained. Christian spouses, in virtue of the sacrament of matrimony, signify and share in the mystery of that union and fruitful love which exists between Christ and the Church (see Ephesians 5:32) (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 11). (pp. 856-858) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate. (Gospel of Matthew 19:6) Matrimony, The Seven Sacraments, Rogier van der Weyden, ca. 1445. Stages for catholic marriage Catholic marriage, also called matrimony, is an indissoluble bond between a man a Marriage and Holy Orders Marriage and Holy Orders Here is the question Since Vatican 2 the sacraments of Marriage and Holy Orders have been understood as sacraments of Christian ministry. How is this understanding of these two sacraments reflected in the churchs contemporary theology of Marriage and Holy Orders? Several individuals have been concerned with the understanding of the sacraments of holy matrimony and the holy orders in the churchs contemporary theology. for instance 1st a The Catholic custom educates that sacraments are an outward signs, incidents that are clear in our understanding, of the unseen truth of Gods grace in our lives, which is practiced only indirectly by its consequence on our lives. And the customary lessons goes further. Not only do sacraments spot the approaching of grace with a noticeable symbol, but they bring about the realism of refinement by the means they connect us to the person of Jesus Christ present in the society which is his house of worship. In the case of the sacraments of occupation this is clear in the way these sacraments begin individuals into a duty, a service, in the church society. since the outcome of the sacraments is connected to the outer symbol, which should be as comprehensible and fluent as possible. To a great level the society itself is constitutive of the symbol, and is thus vital in calling forward the gifts of the occupation in which each individual is well-known and established in each sacrament of oc cupation. 1st b The Bible pioneers us to a widespread custom of sacramental movement.For example the Hebrew Scriptures do not utilize any phrase that we would interpret as sacrament, but portray acts of worship base on representation. The most significant of these is the Passover festivity, but there are many others. However, in the New Testament Jesus built on these obtainable customs of worship, as well as on the narratives and descriptions of the Scriptures in his events and in his teachings. Consequently, the sacraments we rejoice in nowadays are all developed from these events and teachings of Jesus. And that is why we refer to Matrimony Holy Orders as the sacraments of occupation, a statement that originates from the Latin for call. Meaning that, all of us are called by God. As a matter of fact, we are called at different levels, and increasingly all through our lives, we are called into existence, into human self-respect and accountability, and into certain associations, societies and tasks. Most significantly ,we are called into an cherished spiritual union with God that does not come as expected but must be required and refined within the grace, or a particular outreach, of God. The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. 2nd part The Christian perception is that, despite the fact all of the complex human tradition of disputes and competitions, maltreatment and unfairness, chauvinism and eliminations, matrimony in the grace of Christ are redemptive. They are authorized to exceed all the troubles and to make families and relationships all over the community that bring health and completeness and pleasure both within their individual family circle and in the wider society. This too is an necessary part of building the church, the society of the believers of Jesus. This also is a sacrament of occupation, of the passion to build up the church that contributes in the work of salvation. The sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus; the matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. When we perceive the complementarily of these sacraments of occupation, we are observing the house of worship in a manner that may be new and thus seems odd. Some may even imagine that this is a more Protestant method of observing our Christian being collectively and at the nature and purpose of the house of worship. So far this organic means of viewing the house of worship and our positions inside it is built right into our sacramental performance and our theology of the sacraments. In addition, essentially and theologically there is no shared exceptionality between the sacraments of Matrimony Holy Orders. Though the present regulation of the Catholic church needs celibacy of its priests, that has not all time and all over been so. An individual can be named to assist in the building up of the body of the risen Christ, which is the society of followers, in two ways. He can be the one to bring the society collectively in Eucharist as well as being one of individuals who build up the society family by family in weaving the redemptive relations. The two sacraments of occupation, similar to the entire sacraments, are not just celebrations that occur in a given moment and then are history. They are ongoing and continuously unfolding the truth in our existence as we remain heading towards full salvation and change that move us towards redemption, which is our correct connection with God and thus with one another. The main fundamental calling of a believer is the call into discipleship of Jesus in a society of disciples. Thus the main fundamental sacrament of calling is in fact baptism, or more precisely initiation which is celebrated in first Eucharist, Confirmation, and Baptism. It initiates an individual into the membership and life of the house of worship. Therefore, the solemn festivity simultaneously of the heavenly invitation, of the reply of the person, and of the welcome of the society which is both the local meeting of followers of Jesus, and the great general People of God, the international church. Nothing is actually superior or closer in the association we have with our maker than the grace and vocation of baptism. However, that vocation expressed by baptism, that calling of the baptized, plays out in different ways for different individuals. Amongst our 7 sacramental celebrations, we recognize this by a series of festivities shared by all, and by 2 festivities focused on the 2 crucial ways in which the church as society of salvation in the world is built up. And these 2 are usually identified as the sacraments of vocation. Ordained members and Holy Orders See also: Catholic Church hierarchy, College of Bishops, Priesthood (Catholic Church),and Deacon Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[137][138] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).[139] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the S ick.[140] A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[141][142] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.[143] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[144][145] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.[146] All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[147] They are designed by national bishops conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.[148] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[149] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[139] Because the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[150] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,[151] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.[152] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.[153] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VIs statement If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities.[153] [edit] Lay members, Marriage See also: Laity The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a bodyall being important to enable the body to function.[154] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christs priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[155] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[139] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.[156] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be gra nted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[157] Natural family planning is approved.[158] Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[159] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[159] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[160] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.[161] [edit] matrimony and orders After definition (done) The rites of marriage and priesthood are examined from theological, historical and structural point of view. The complementary offices and responsibilities in the house of worship are differentiated and explained. The pastoral ministry of the ordained is viewed in its ecclesiological context and purpose, with concentration given to a suitable understanding of rank. Special concentration is provided to the sacramentality of matrimony, a theology of sexuality, and the association between matrimony and celibacy. The 2 sacraments 4th part Finally, this brings us to the sacraments at the service of communion; the sacraments of priesthood and matrimony are headed towards individual redemption and the building of the People of God. In the early existence of the Church, believers were encouraged to get married to other believers and bring up their off springs according to the illustration presented by Jesus, The matrimony was celebrated as a public issue and was not ruled by Church sacramental rules. It was not until the 12th century that matrimony was being recognized as a sacrament by Church theologians, although from around four hundred CE Church leaders started their participation in the rite of marriage. In the sacrament of matrimony, viewed by the Church as symbolizing and dividing the secrecy of the harmony and true love between Christ and the Church, Married couples are to develop in the alertness that their calling is one of assisting one another, in Godliness, in their matrimonial life and in the bringing up the children. This is viewed that, the birth of off springs that may lead to marriage of believers, and the baptism of these children, helps the People of God, the Body of Christ, to be enabled throughout the centuries. From earlier periods Christian marriage has been seen as being fixed in the notion and realism of self-gift, with this gifting of oneself entirely to the other reflecting the actuality of God, Married partners, together with all people of the Body of Christ, are sustained and reinforced in their vocation through the welcome of the Eucharist. The meaning the Church places on the Eucharist in the blessing of matrimony can be viewed in the Catechism where it states: It is thus proper that the partners should seal their approval to offer themselves to one another through submission of their individual lives by joining it to the offering of Christ that is made present in the Eucharistic sacrifice, and by getting the Eucharist so that, speaking in the similar Body and the similar Blood of Christ, they may form one body of Christ. However, during earlier periods in the house of worship, coordination of leadership developed to assist the society live its life in the way they felt Jesus identified them to. Finally this offered increase to a number of offices, bishop, presbyter, deacon, which needed a ceremony of ordination so as to complete that office It is about two fifteen CE, with the Apostolic custom of Hippolytus that the house of worship is capable of tracing the original existing rite of ordination, providing a clear sign of the earliest reality and performance of ordination. [92] By the eleventh century ordination had come to be generally considered a sacrament. [93] With the advent of Vatican II and the publication of the document The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum concilium) the Church states the prayers addressed to God by the priest who, in the person of Christ, presides over the assembly, are said in the name of the entire holy people and of all present. [94] That is, the priest acts for and in the name of the entire Eucharistic community. In further Vatican II documents the role of the priest is stated as thus: by reason of their sacerdotal dignity; and in virtue of the sacrament of Orders, after the image of Christ, the supreme and eternal priest they are consecrated in order to preach the Gospel and shepherd the faithful as well as to celebrate divine worship as true priests of the New Testament However, it is in the eucharistic cult or in the eucharistic assembly of the faithful that they exercise their sacred functions and in the sacrifice of the Mass they make present again the unique sacrifice of the New Testament, that namely of Christ offering a spotless victim to the Father. [95] Once again the centrality of the Eucharist is evident. It is through the Eucharistic ministry of the priest that the presence of Christ can be actualised for the community of believers. [96] With the reception of this sacrament certain men are seen to receive a sacred power in order to serve the faithful through teaching, divine worship and pastoral governance. [97] The Church therefore sees the ordained priesthood as a means by which Christ unceasingly builds up and leads [Christs] Church. Marriage The Council brought about two major changes in our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. First, the Council speaks of marriage as a covenant. The marriage covenant helps us think in biblical and interpersonal categories that reach beyond the legal categories of the marriage contract. The marriage covenant is a symbol of Gods covenant with humanity. Second, the Council taught that the purpose of marriage is not only to produce children but also to enable the couple to support one another in mutual love. Marriage is an intimate partnership of life and love (Church in the Modern World, #48). We look to the married couple as a sacrament, a sign to the world of Gods love. Both of these changes enrich our understanding of the Sacrament of Marriage. But they also open the door to new questions: Who is capable of a sacramental marriage? What are the qualities and conditions necessary for a marriage to be a sign of Gods love for the Church? In a time when Catholic marriages are vulnerable to the stresses of modern life, the Churchs support of married couples is vital. Holy Orders When we think of Holy Orders we usually think of the sacrament by which one becomes a priest. But Holy Orders ends in s because it names three sacramental orders: the Order of the Episcopate (bishops), the Order of Presbyters (priests), and the Order of Deacons. The Council had important things to say about each of these. The Order of the Episcopate (Bishops). The Council affirmed that a bishop is ordained to the fullness of the Sacrament of Orders. By his ordination a bishop becomes a member of the College of Bishops and assumes responsibility not only for his own local Church but also for the universal Church. The Order of Presbyters (Priests). We have all witnessed the drastic decline in the number of priests. Empty rectories, merged parishes, closed seminaries, Sunday Celebrations in the Absence of a Priestthe bishops of Vatican II envisioned none of these things. The Council made two major changes that radically affected the lives of priests. First, while the ordained have specific ministries within the Church, the Council affirmed that the basis of all ministry is Baptism into the Body of Christ. Second, the Council placed the priest in the midst of the baptized and said that priests should work together with the lay faithful (Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests, Presbyterorum Ordinis, #9). To go from being set apart from the faithful to living in the midst of the faithful was a big change. The Council affirmed that priests are in a certain sense set apart but they are not to be separated from the People of God because priests cannot serve the faithful if they are strangers to their lives and conditions (PO, #3). Has this change in identity contributed to the decline in the number of priests? The Order of Deacons. Deacons had ministered in the Western Church until about the fifth century. By the time of the Second Vatican Council, the Order of Deacons was simply a transitional stage for those passing through on their way to the priesthood. The Council restored the Order of Deacons, making it a permanent ministry in the Church. The bishops of the Council decided to permit married men to be ordained deacons. In 1967 there were no permanent deacons; today there are over 30,000 deacons worldwide. PREPARATION FOR THE SACRAMENT OF MARRIAGE INTRODUCTION 1. Preparation for marriage, for married and family life, is of great importance for the good of the Church. In fact, the sacrament of Marriage has great value for the whole Christian community and, in the first place, for the spouses whose decision is such that it cannot be improvised or made hastily. In the past, this preparation could count on the support of society which recognized the values and benefits of marriage. Without any difficulties or doubts, the Church protected the sanctity of marriage with the awareness that this sacrament represented an ecclesial guarantee as the living cell of the People of God. At least in the communities that were truly evangelized, the Churchs support was solid, unitary and compact. In general, separations and marriage failures were rare, and divorce was considered a social plague (cf. Gaudium et Spes = GS, 47). Today, on the contrary, in many cases, we are witnessing an accentuated deterioration of the family and a certain corrosion of the values of marriage. In many nations, especially economically developed ones, the number of marriages has decreased. Marriage is usually contracted at a later age and the number of divorces and separations is increasing, even during the first years of married life. All this inevitably leads to a pastoral concern that comes up repeatedly: Are the persons contracting marriage really prepared for it? The problem of preparation for the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows emerges as a great pastoral need, first for the sake of the spouses, for the whole Christian community and for society. Therefore, interest in, and initiatives for providing adequate and timely answers to preparation for the sacrament of Marriage are growing everywhere. 2. Through on-going contact with the Episcopal Conferences and the Bishops in various meetings, and especially their ad limina visits, the Pontifical Council for the Family has carefully followed the pastoral concern regarding the preparation and celebration of the sacrament of Marriage and the life that follows. The Council has been repeatedly asked to offer an instrument for the preparation of Christian engaged persons which the present document represents. The Council has also drawn on the contributions from many Apostolic Movements, Groups and Associations working for the pastoral care of the family who have offered their support, advice and experience for the preparation of these guidelines. Marriage preparation constitutes a providential and favourable period for those oriented toward this Christian sacrament, and a Kayrà ³s, i.e., a period in which God calls upon the engaged and helps them discern the vocation to marriage and family life. The engagement period is set within the context of a rich evangelization process. In fact, questions that affect the family converge in the life of the engaged, the future spouses. They are therefore invited to understand the meaning of the responsible and mature love of the community of life and love which their family will be, a real domestic church which will contribute toward enriching the whole Church. The importance of this preparation involves a process of evangelization which is both maturation and deepening in the faith. If the faith is weak or almost nonexistent (cf. Familiaris Consortio = FC 68), it must be revived. Thorough, patient instruction that arouses and nourishes the ardor of a living faith cannot be excluded. Especially where the environment has become paganized, it will be particularly advisable to offer a journey of faith, which is similar to the catechumenate (FC 66), and a presentation of the fundamental Christian truths that may help acquire or strengthen the maturity of the faith of the persons contracting marriage. It would be desirable if the favourable moment of marriage preparation could be transformed, as a sign of hope, into a New Evangelization for the future families. 3. This particular attention is highlighted by the teachings of the Second Vatican Council (GS 52), the guidelines of the Papal Magisterium (FC 66), the ecclesial norms themselves (Codex Iuris Canonici = CIC, can. 1063; Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium = CCEO, can. 783), the Catechism of the Catholic Church (n. 1632), and other documents of the Magisterium, including the Charter of the Rights of the Family. The two most recent documents of the Papal Magisterium the Letter to Families Gratissimam Sane and the Encyclical Evangelium Vitae (= EV) constitute a notable aid for our task. The Sacraments of Vocation and Commitment: Matrimony and Holy Order (Vatican II) As happened with so many other theological and pastoral questions, the Catholic Churchs perspective on marriage was significantly modified by the Second Vatican Council. In contrast with previous official pronouncements and conventional theological and canonical insights, the council adopts a remarkably personalistic standpoint. It no longer uses the traditional term contract to describe the marriage bond. Instead, the council speaks of the marriage covenant which is sealed by an irrevocable personal consent (Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, n. 48). Second, neither does the council continue to employ the old distinction between primary and secondary ends in which the begetting of children is always more important than the mutual love of (two people). Hence, while not making the other ends of marriage of less value, the true practice of conjugal love, and the whole nature of family life resulting from it, tend to dispose the spouses to cooperate courageously with the love of the creator and Savior who through them day by day expands and enriches His own family (n. 50, italics McBriens). Third, the sacrament of marriage is not something added to the marriage union established through mutual human love. Authentic married love is taken up into divine love and is ruled and enriched by the redemptive power of Christ and the salvific action of the Church (n. 48). This new emphasis in the theology of marriage is consistent with the claims of contemporary sociology that this is the first age in which people marry and remain in marriage because they love each other. And so there is this stress on the mutual exchange of love constituting the sacrament of marriage, on married love as the source of the institution of marriage, on the need for growth in this love to bring the sacrament to its full realization, and on the need for the Church constantly to bring forth the witness value of this sacrament to the whole community of faith. As (two people) are called to be faithful, generous, and gracious to each other in fulfillment of their marriage covenant, so is the whole Church called to be faithful to its covenant with God in Christ. Fourth, the council emphasizes the necessity of a faith commitment for the sacrament of marriage (see Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, n. 59). Marriage is not just a ceremony by which two people are legally bound together. As a sacrament, it is an act of worship, and expression of faith, a sign of the Churchs unity, a mode of Christs presence. . Fifth, the full consummation of marriage is more than a biological act. The old theology and the old canon law asserted that a marriage between two baptized Christians, once performed according to the rite of the Church (ratum) and once consummated by a single act of physical union (consummatum), can never be dissolved, not even by the pope. But according to the council, the expression of the mutual love which is at the heart of the sacrament consists of more than biological union. It involves the good of the whole person. Therefore it can enrich the expressions of body and mind with a unique dignity, ennobling these expressions as special ingredients and signs of friendship distinctive of marriage. Such love pervades the whole of (the spouses) lives (n. 49) Finally, the broader ecclesial dimension of the sacrament is maintained. Christian spouses, in virtue of the sacrament of matrimony, signify and share in the mystery of that union and fruitful love which exists between Christ and the Church (see Ephesians 5:32) (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, n. 11). (pp. 856-858) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate. (Gospel of Matthew 19:6) Matrimony, The Seven Sacraments, Rogier van der Weyden, ca. 1445. Stages for catholic marriage Catholic marriage, also called matrimony, is an indissoluble bond between a man a